pearance or movements, conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its own. The word robot can refer to both physical and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots to differentiate.[1]While there is still discussion[2][3][4] about which machines qualify as robots, a typical robot will have several, though not necessarily all of the following properties:
Is not 'natural' i.e. has been artificially created.
Can sense its environment.
Can manipulate things in its environment.
Has some degree of intelligence, or ability to make choices based on the environment, or automatic control / preprogrammed sequence.
Is programmable.
Can move with one or more axes of rotation or translation.
Can make dexterous coordinated movements.
Appears to have intent or agency (reification, anthropomorphisation or Pathetic fallacy[5]).
Mental agencyFor robotic engineers, the physical appearance of a machine is less important than the way its actions are controlled.[6] The more the control system seems to have agency of its own, the more likely the machine is to be called a robot. An important feature of agency is the ability to make choices. So the more a machine could feasibly choose to do something different, the more agency it has. For example: 
a clockwork car is never considered a robot[7]
a remotely operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot[8] (or telerobot).
a car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a programmable sequence might be called a robot.
a self-controlled car, like the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns, or the entries to the DARPA Grand Challenge, which could sense its environment, and make driving decisions based on this information would quite likely be called robot.
a sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can take decisions, navigate freely and converse fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot.
a clockwork car is never considered a robot[7]
a remotely operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot[8] (or telerobot).
a car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a programmable sequence might be called a robot.
a self-controlled car, like the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns, or the entries to the DARPA Grand Challenge, which could sense its environment, and make driving decisions based on this information would quite likely be called robot.
a sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can take decisions, navigate freely and converse fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot.
Physical agencyHowever, for many laymen, if a machine looks anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e.g. ASIMO and Aibo), especially if it is limb-like (e.g. a simple robot arm), or has limbs, or can move around, it would be called a robot.
For example, even if the following examples used the same control architecture:
a player piano is rarely called a robot[9]
a CNC milling machine is very occasionally called a robot.
a factory automation arm is usually called a robot, and is always called an industrial robot.
a zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually called a robot.[10][11]
a humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always called a robot.
Interestingly, while a 3-axis CNC milling machine may have a very similar or identical control system to a robot arm, it is the arm which is almost always called a robot, while the CNC machine is usually just a machine. Having a limb can make all the difference. Having eyes too gives people a sense that a machine is aware (the eyes are the windows of the soul). However, simply being anthropomorphic is not sufficient for something to be called a robot. A robot must do something, whether it is useful work or not. So, for example, a rubber dog chew, shaped like ASIMO, would not be considered a robot.
Official definitions and classifications of robots
For example, even if the following examples used the same control architecture:
a player piano is rarely called a robot[9]
a CNC milling machine is very occasionally called a robot.
a factory automation arm is usually called a robot, and is always called an industrial robot.
a zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually called a robot.[10][11]
a humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always called a robot.
Interestingly, while a 3-axis CNC milling machine may have a very similar or identical control system to a robot arm, it is the arm which is almost always called a robot, while the CNC machine is usually just a machine. Having a limb can make all the difference. Having eyes too gives people a sense that a machine is aware (the eyes are the windows of the soul). However, simply being anthropomorphic is not sufficient for something to be called a robot. A robot must do something, whether it is useful work or not. So, for example, a rubber dog chew, shaped like ASIMO, would not be considered a robot.
Official definitions and classifications of robots
Countries have different definitions of what it means to be a robot.
The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) officially recognizes four classes of robot:
A: Handling devices with manual control
B: A
utomated handling devices with predetermined cycles
C: Programmable, servo-controlled robots with continuous of point-to-point trajectories
D: Capable of Type C specifications, and also acquires information from the environment for intelligent motion
In contrast, the Japanese Industrial Robot Association[12] (JIRA) recognizes as many as six classes:[13]
1: Manual - Handling Devices actuated by an operator
2: Fixed Sequence Robot
3: Variable-Sequence Robot with easily modified sequence of control
4: Playback Robot, which can record a motion for later playback
5: Numerical Control Robots with a movement program to teach it tasks manually
6: Intelligent robot: that can understand its environment and able to complete the task despite changes in the operation conditions
Such variation makes it difficult to compare numbers of robots in different countries. Japan has so many robots partly because it counts more machines as robots. For this reason, the International Standards Organization gives a single definition to be used when counting the number of robots in each country.[14] International standard ISO 8373 defines a "robot" as:
An automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.[15]
Other definitions of robot
There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone, and many people have their own. [16] For example,
Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in industrial robotics, once remarked:
I can't define a robot, but I know one when I see one.[17]
The Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines "robot" as:
A machine used to perform jobs automatically, which is controlled by a computer[18]
The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) officially recognizes four classes of robot:
A: Handling devices with manual control
B: A
utomated handling devices with predetermined cyclesC: Programmable, servo-controlled robots with continuous of point-to-point trajectories
D: Capable of Type C specifications, and also acquires information from the environment for intelligent motion
In contrast, the Japanese Industrial Robot Association[12] (JIRA) recognizes as many as six classes:[13]
1: Manual - Handling Devices actuated by an operator
2: Fixed Sequence Robot
3: Variable-Sequence Robot with easily modified sequence of control
4: Playback Robot, which can record a motion for later playback
5: Numerical Control Robots with a movement program to teach it tasks manually
6: Intelligent robot: that can understand its environment and able to complete the task despite changes in the operation conditions
Such variation makes it difficult to compare numbers of robots in different countries. Japan has so many robots partly because it counts more machines as robots. For this reason, the International Standards Organization gives a single definition to be used when counting the number of robots in each country.[14] International standard ISO 8373 defines a "robot" as:
An automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.[15]
Other definitions of robot
There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone, and many people have their own. [16] For example,
Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in industrial robotics, once remarked:
I can't define a robot, but I know one when I see one.[17]
The Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines "robot" as:
A machine used to perform jobs automatically, which is controlled by a computer[18]
Ancient developments
The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legends of Cadmus, who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers, and the myth of Pygmalion, whose statue of Galate
a came to life. In Greek mythology, the deformed god of metalwork (Vulcan or Hephaestus) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power. Medieval Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, included recipes for creating artificial snakes, scorpions, and humans in his coded Book of Stones. Jewish legend tells of the Golem, a clay creature animated by Kabbalistic magic. Similarly, in the Younger Edda, Norse mythology tells of a clay giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with Thor, the God of Thunder.
In ancient China, a curious account on automata is found in the Lie Zi text, written in the 3rd century BC. Within it there is a description of a much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (1023-957 BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. The latter proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork.
The king stared at the figure in astonishment. It walked with rapid strides, moving its head up and down, so that anyone would have taken it for a live human being. The artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune. He touched its hand, and it began posturing, keeping perfect time...As the performance was drawing to an end, the robot winked its eye and made advances to the ladies in attendance, whereupon the king became incensed and would have had Yen Shih [Yan Shi] executed on the spot had not the latter, in mortal fear, instantly taken the robot to pieces to let him see what it really was. And, indeed, it turned out to be only a construction of leather, wood, glue and lacquer, variously coloured white, black, red and blue. Examining it closely, the king found all the internal organs complete—liver, gall, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines; and over these again, muscles, bones and limbs with their joints, skin, teeth and hair, all of them artificial...The king tried the effect of taking away the heart, and found that the mouth could no longer speak; he took away the liver and the eyes could no longer see; he took away the kidneys and the legs lost their power of locomotion. The king was delighted.[19]
Concepts akin to a robot can be found as long ago as the 4th century BC, when the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical bird he called "The Pigeon" which was propelled by steam. Yet another early automaton was the clepsydra, made in 250 BC by Ctesibius of Alexandria, a physicist and inventor from Ptolemaic Egypt.[20] Hero of Alexandria (10-70 AD) made numerous innovations in the field of automata, including one that allegedly could speak.
The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legends of Cadmus, who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers, and the myth of Pygmalion, whose statue of Galate
a came to life. In Greek mythology, the deformed god of metalwork (Vulcan or Hephaestus) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power. Medieval Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, included recipes for creating artificial snakes, scorpions, and humans in his coded Book of Stones. Jewish legend tells of the Golem, a clay creature animated by Kabbalistic magic. Similarly, in the Younger Edda, Norse mythology tells of a clay giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with Thor, the God of Thunder.In ancient China, a curious account on automata is found in the Lie Zi text, written in the 3rd century BC. Within it there is a description of a much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (1023-957 BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. The latter proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork.
The king stared at the figure in astonishment. It walked with rapid strides, moving its head up and down, so that anyone would have taken it for a live human being. The artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune. He touched its hand, and it began posturing, keeping perfect time...As the performance was drawing to an end, the robot winked its eye and made advances to the ladies in attendance, whereupon the king became incensed and would have had Yen Shih [Yan Shi] executed on the spot had not the latter, in mortal fear, instantly taken the robot to pieces to let him see what it really was. And, indeed, it turned out to be only a construction of leather, wood, glue and lacquer, variously coloured white, black, red and blue. Examining it closely, the king found all the internal organs complete—liver, gall, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines; and over these again, muscles, bones and limbs with their joints, skin, teeth and hair, all of them artificial...The king tried the effect of taking away the heart, and found that the mouth could no longer speak; he took away the liver and the eyes could no longer see; he took away the kidneys and the legs lost their power of locomotion. The king was delighted.[19]
Concepts akin to a robot can be found as long ago as the 4th century BC, when the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical bird he called "The Pigeon" which was propelled by steam. Yet another early automaton was the clepsydra, made in 250 BC by Ctesibius of Alexandria, a physicist and inventor from Ptolemaic Egypt.[20] Hero of Alexandria (10-70 AD) made numerous innovations in the field of automata, including one that allegedly could speak.
Medieval developments
Al-Jazari (1136-1206), an Arab Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of automatic machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata powered by water, and the first programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with p
egs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.[21]
One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) in around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw. [22] The design is likely to be based on his anatomical research recorded in the Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build the robot (see: Leonardo's robot).
Early modern developments
The word robot was introduced by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) premiered in 1920 (see also Robots in literature for details of the play; its robots were biological in nature, corresponding to the modern term android).[22] However, Čapek named his brother Josef Čapek, a painter and a writer, as the true inventor of the word.[23] The word is derived from the noun robota, meaning "forced labour, corvée, drudgery" in the Czech language and being the general root for work in other Slavic languages. (See Karel Čapek for more details).
An early automaton was created 1738 by Jacques de Vaucanson, who created a mechanical duck that was able to eat and digest grain, flap its wings, and excrete. [22]
The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka, known as "Japan's Edison," created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which were capable of serving tea, firing arrows drawn from a quiver, or even painting a Japanese kanji character. The landmark text Karakuri Zui (Illustrated Machinery) was published in 1796. (T. N. Hornyak, Loving the Machine: The Art and Science of Japanese Robots [New York: Kodansha International, 2006])
In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled (teleoperated) boat, similar to a modern ROV. Based on his patents U.S. Patent 613,809 , U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop the "wireless torpedo" into a weapon system for the US Navy. (Cheney 1989) See also the PBS website article (with photos): Tesla - Master of Lightning
Al-Jazari (1136-1206), an Arab Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of automatic machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata powered by water, and the first programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with p
egs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.[21]One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) in around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw. [22] The design is likely to be based on his anatomical research recorded in the Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build the robot (see: Leonardo's robot).
Early modern developments
The word robot was introduced by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) premiered in 1920 (see also Robots in literature for details of the play; its robots were biological in nature, corresponding to the modern term android).[22] However, Čapek named his brother Josef Čapek, a painter and a writer, as the true inventor of the word.[23] The word is derived from the noun robota, meaning "forced labour, corvée, drudgery" in the Czech language and being the general root for work in other Slavic languages. (See Karel Čapek for more details).
An early automaton was created 1738 by Jacques de Vaucanson, who created a mechanical duck that was able to eat and digest grain, flap its wings, and excrete. [22]
The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka, known as "Japan's Edison," created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which were capable of serving tea, firing arrows drawn from a quiver, or even painting a Japanese kanji character. The landmark text Karakuri Zui (Illustrated Machinery) was published in 1796. (T. N. Hornyak, Loving the Machine: The Art and Science of Japanese Robots [New York: Kodansha International, 2006])
In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled (teleoperated) boat, similar to a modern ROV. Based on his patents U.S. Patent 613,809 , U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop the "wireless torpedo" into a weapon system for the US Navy. (Cheney 1989) See also the PBS website article (with photos): Tesla - Master of Lightning
Some examples of factory robots:
Car production: This is now the primary example of factory automation. Over the last three decades automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical factory contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines - one robot for every ten human workers. On an automated production line a vehicle chassis is taken along a conveyor to be welded, glued, painted and finally assembled by a sequence of robot stations.
Packaging: Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them rapidly into boxes, or the loading and unloading of machining centers.
Electronics: Mass produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick and place robots, typically with "SCARA" manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy.[33] Such robots can place several components per second (tens of thousands per hour), far out-performing a human in terms of speed, accuracy, and reliability.[34]
Automated Guided Vehicles: Large mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision[35] or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.[36]
Tasks such as these suit robots perfectly because the tasks can be accurately defined and must be performed the same every time. Very little feedback or intelligence is required, and the robots may need only the most basic of exteroceptors to sense things in their environment, if any at all.
Car production: This is now the primary example of factory automation. Over the last three decades automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical factory contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines - one robot for every ten human workers. On an automated production line a vehicle chassis is taken along a conveyor to be welded, glued, painted and finally assembled by a sequence of robot stations.
Packaging: Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them rapidly into boxes, or the loading and unloading of machining centers.
Electronics: Mass produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick and place robots, typically with "SCARA" manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy.[33] Such robots can place several components per second (tens of thousands per hour), far out-performing a human in terms of speed, accuracy, and reliability.[34]
Automated Guided Vehicles: Large mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision[35] or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.[36]
Tasks such as these suit robots perfectly because the tasks can be accurately defined and must be performed the same every time. Very little feedback or intelligence is required, and the robots may need only the most basic of exteroceptors to sense things in their environment, if any at all.
Robots in the home: As their price falls, and their performance and computational ability rises[40], making them both affordable and sufficiently autonomous, robots are increasingly being seen in the home where they are taking on simple but unwanted jobs, such as vacuum cleaning, floor cleaning and lawn mowing. While they have been on the market for several years, 2006 saw an explosion in the number of domestic robots sold. Currently, more domestic robots have been sold than any other single type of robot.[41] They tend to be relatively autonomous, usually only requiring a command to begin their job. They then proceed to go about their business in their own way. At such, they display a good deal of agency, and are considered true robots.
Telerobots: When a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away, or inaccessible, teleoperated robots, or telerobots are used. Rather than following a predetermined sequence of movements a telerobot is controlled from a distance by a human operator. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. A laparoscopic surgery robot such as da Vinci allows the surgeon to work inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time.[42] An interesting use of a telerobot is by the author Margaret Atwood, who has recently started using a robot pen (the Longpen) to sign books remotely. This saves the financial cost and physical inconvenience of traveling to book signings around the world.[43] Such telerobots may be little more advanced than radio controlled cars. Some people do not consider them to be true robots because they show little or no agency .
Telerobots: When a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away, or inaccessible, teleoperated robots, or telerobots are used. Rather than following a predetermined sequence of movements a telerobot is controlled from a distance by a human operator. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. A laparoscopic surgery robot such as da Vinci allows the surgeon to work inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time.[42] An interesting use of a telerobot is by the author Margaret Atwood, who has recently started using a robot pen (the Longpen) to sign books remotely. This saves the financial cost and physical inconvenience of traveling to book signings around the world.[43] Such telerobots may be little more advanced than radio controlled cars. Some people do not consider them to be true robots because they show little or no agency .
